Painting technique · Art history
The pigments behind Vermeer's paintings
A technical breakdown of every pigment identified across four works: The Little Street (1657-58), The Milkmaid (1657-58), Girl with a Pearl Earring (ca. 1665), and Girl with the Red Hat (1665-66). For each pigment, the descriptions point to specific subjects and areas visible in the painting above.
Baroque period · Oil on canvas and panel · Four paintings examined
Vermeer's palette was deliberately restricted. Across all four paintings examined here, he returned consistently to the same small group of pigments, deployed with exceptional technical control. The most striking feature of his practice is his consistent use of natural ultramarine, one of the most expensive pigments available, even in passages where a less costly blue such as azurite or smalt would have been conventional.
The binding medium across these works is linseed oil. Vermeer's layering approach was methodical: dark undermodelling layers establish tone and form, white underlayers build luminosity, and the final coloured layers are often applied thinly over these carefully prepared surfaces. The result is the characteristic clarity and softness of edge that distinguishes his work from that of his contemporaries.
The Little Street, 1657-58
Oil on canvas · 54.3 x 44 cm · Baroque
One of only three surviving Vermeer townscapes. The palette is compact even by Vermeer's standards, with the blues of the sky divided between two different mixtures depending on tone, and the greens of the shutters and foliage achieved through pigment mixing rather than a dedicated green pigment.
Pigments
Look at: the white wall of the building; the lighter areas of the sky; the pale plasterwork throughout
Basic lead carbonate. The dominant pigment of the composition. Used for the white wall mixed with a small amount of red ochre to warm the tone slightly. Also the primary constituent of both sky mixtures, with ultramarine and smalt added in different proportions to produce the light blue and white-grey sky passages.
Look at: the light blue areas of the sky
Lapis lazuli pigment. Mixed with lead white to produce the light blue passages of the sky. Vermeer's preference for ultramarine over cheaper blue alternatives is consistent across his entire surviving output.
Look at: the white-grey passages of sky
Ground cobalt-blue glass. Used in small amounts with lead white and red ochre for the cooler, more neutral passages of sky. Functions here more as a grey modifier than as a blue colorant, shifting the lead white toward a cooler tone without the saturation that ultramarine would introduce.
Look at: the reddish-brown wall at left; the white wall (small addition); the white-grey sky (small addition)
Iron oxide earth pigment. The primary pigment of the reddish-brown wall, combined with madder lake and lead white. Also added in small amounts to the white wall mixture to warm it and to the white-grey sky mixture to prevent a flat cool grey.
Look at: the reddish-brown wall at left
Organic red lake from the madder plant. Used alongside red ochre and lead white in the reddish-brown wall. The transparent character of the lake adds depth and chromatic warmth to what would otherwise be a flat earth-pigment tone.
Look at: the green shutters
Basic copper carbonate. Used in the green shutters mixed with a yellow pigment to produce their muted green tone. One of the few passages in Vermeer's work where azurite appears as the primary blue rather than as a supporting pigment.
Look at: the green foliage above the doorway
Fused lead-tin oxide. Mixed with a blue pigment to produce the greens of the foliage, avoiding a dedicated green pigment in favour of a controllable mixture.
The Milkmaid, 1657-58
Oil on canvas · 46 x 41 cm · Baroque
The Milkmaid is notable for its reduced palette organised around three primary colours. The ground along the lower edge consists of chalk, lead white, and umber. The painting's most instructive technical feature is Vermeer's handling of edges: the crisp boundary between the maid's blue tunic and the white wall was achieved through a precise sequence of dark undermodelling, white underlayer, and final colour layer, with the bright edge produced by the underlying white paint showing through.
Pigments
Look at: the maid's blue tunic; the blue cloth on the table; the grey-blue overturned sleeve; the wine jug decorations; the tablecloth
Lapis lazuli. The dominant pigment of the composition. The tunic is mixed with lead white then overglazed with pure ultramarine. The blue cloth on the table uses the same mixture. The overturned sleeve begins with an ochre ground then ultramarine and lead white on top. The raised decorations on the wine jug are marbled wet-in-wet with a blue ultramarine glaze. The tablecloth also uses ultramarine and lead white in a different proportion.
Look at: the white wall background; the maid's cap and collar; the white underlayer beneath the tunic
Basic lead carbonate. Used in the white wall background mixed with umber and black to render its texture. Also the white underlayer applied over the black undermodelling before the blue tunic colour, which produces the bright edge. Mixed throughout the blue, yellow, and sleeve passages.
Look at: the yellow upper part of the maid's tunic; the lighter parts of the sleeve
Fused lead-tin oxide. Used for the yellow upper part of the tunic, contrasting with the blue skirt below. The lighter parts of the sleeve are lead-tin yellow mixed with natural ultramarine.
Look at: the maid's red skirt
Organic red lake from the madder plant. The red skirt is painted in madder lake and lead white over a charcoal black underlayer. The transparent lake applied over the dark base produces the rich, deep red of the passage.
Look at: the brown floor in the lower right; the grey-blue sleeve (ground layer)
Iron oxide earth pigment. The brown floor in the lower right is painted in red ochre, charcoal black, and lead white. Also used as the initial ground layer in the grey-blue overturned sleeve before the ultramarine and lead white overpaint.
Look at: the white wall background; the dark shadow over the table at left; the ground layer
Manganese-rich earth pigment. Used in the white wall background alongside black and lead white to render the texture of the lime-washed surface. Also present in the dark shadow over the table on the left combined with charcoal black and a little lead white. Part of the chalk, lead white, and umber ground along the lower edge.
Look at: the black undermodelling of the tunic edge; the dark shadow over the table; the underlayer of the red skirt; the brown floor
Fine carbon black. The dark undermodelling layer for the tunic extends beyond the blue skirt and is then covered by the white underlayer and final blue paint. Present in the dark shadow over the table combined with umber. The red skirt is painted over a charcoal black underlayer. Also in the brown floor mixture.
Look at: the ground layer along the lower edge of the canvas
Calcium carbonate. Present in the ground layer along the lower edge alongside lead white and umber. Functions as a filler and ground material rather than a primary colorant.
Girl with a Pearl Earring, ca. 1665
Oil on canvas · 44.5 x 39 cm · Baroque
Among the most technically studied of Vermeer's works. The dark background is not a simple black but a complex multi-layer construction involving organic yellow and blue pigments alongside black, producing the characteristic warm dark tone. The yellow sleeve shows Vermeer's practice of building colour in two distinct layers with different particle sizes, and the highlight in the yellow cloth reveals a multi-layer structure of unusual complexity for so small an area.
Pigments
Look at: the blue turban; the edge of the blue turban; the yellow sleeve upper layer (small addition)
Lapis lazuli. The blue turban is virtually pure natural ultramarine, one of the most concentrated uses of the pigment in Vermeer's work. The edge of the turban contains only a very small amount of ultramarine combined with bone black and chalk. A little finely ground ultramarine is also present in the upper paint layer of the yellow sleeve.
Look at: the white of the eye; the skin; the yellow sleeve upper layer; the highlight in the yellow cloth
Basic lead carbonate. The white of the eye is lead white alone. Used in the skin tinted with red lake and vermilion. Present in the upper layer of the yellow sleeve alongside finely ground yellow ochre and a little ultramarine. Also in the top layer of the highlight in the yellow cloth combined with finely ground iron oxide.
Look at: the lips; the skin
Mercuric sulfide. Used for the red lips combined with carmine cochineal. Also present as a component of the skin mixture alongside lead white and red lake.
Look at: the lips; the skin; the edge of the blue turban
Organic red lake from cochineal insects. Combined with vermilion for the red lips. Also used in the skin mixture alongside lead white and vermilion. A little organic red pigment is present in the edge of the blue turban alongside bone black and chalk.
Look at: the dark background; the edge of the blue turban
Charred animal bone. Used in the dark background in a layer of bone black and charcoal black. Also present in the edge of the turban combined with chalk and a very little ultramarine.
Look at: the dark background; the yellow sleeve lower layer
Fine carbon black. Present in the dark background alongside bone black in the first layer. Also used as finely ground charcoal black in the lower layer of the yellow sleeve, combined with yellow ochre, brown ochre, and red ochre.
Look at: the yellow sleeve; the highlight in the yellow cloth
Iron oxide earth pigment. Used in both layers of the yellow sleeve: in the lower layer as part of the coarser pigment mixture, and in the upper layer as finely ground yellow ochre combined with lead white and a little ultramarine. Also present in the highlight of the yellow cloth.
Look at: the yellow sleeve lower layer
Earth pigment. Used in the lower layer of the yellow sleeve alongside yellow ochre, red ochre, and finely ground charcoal black. Contributes the warm brown depth of the underlying colour before the lighter upper layer is applied.
Look at: the yellow sleeve lower layer; the dark background second layer (small addition)
Iron oxide earth pigment. Present in the lower layer of the yellow sleeve alongside yellow ochre, brown ochre, and charcoal black. Also a small addition in the second layer of the dark background alongside weld, chalk, and indigo.
Look at: the edge of the blue turban; the highlight in the yellow cloth; the dark background second layer
Calcium carbonate. Present in the edge of the blue turban alongside bone black and a little ultramarine. Also in the highlight of the yellow cloth and in the second layer of the dark background alongside weld, indigo, and red ochre.
Look at: the dark background (second layer)
Organic blue dye pigment. Present in the second layer of the dark background alongside weld (luteolin), chalk, and a little red ochre. The combination of an organic yellow and an organic blue in the background contributes to its distinctive warm dark tone.
Look at: the dark background (second layer)
Yellow lake from weld plant (Reseda luteola), containing the flavonoid luteolin. Present in the second layer of the dark background combined with chalk, a little red ochre, and indigo. The weld contributes a warm organic yellow that, combined with the indigo and other pigments, produces the complex dark tone of the background.
Natural ultramarine
Lead white
Vermilion
Carmine
Bone black
Charcoal black
Yellow ochre
Brown ochre
Red ochre
Chalk
Indigo
Weld
Girl with the Red Hat, 1665-66
Oil on wood panel · 22.8 x 18 cm · Baroque
The smallest of the four works and the only one on a wood panel. The ground is chalk. The red hat is built in two layers, the background greens use azurite mixed with yellow ochre and ultramarine, and the shadows in the face employ green earth, a traditional technique for cooling flesh tones in shadow.
Pigments
Look at: the red hat (first layer)
Mercuric sulfide. The first layer of the red hat consists of vermilion and black pigment, establishing the deep warm red base before the madder lake glaze is applied on top.
Look at: the red hat (upper glaze layer)
Organic red lake from the madder plant. Applied as the final glaze layer over the vermilion and black underlayer. The transparent lake deepens and enriches the red without adding opacity, giving the hat its saturated scarlet tone.
Look at: the shadow areas of the face
Complex iron silicate mineral. Used in the shadows of the face, exploiting its cool grey-green tone to model the shadow passages and create the impression of volume through contrast with the warm flesh tones in the lit areas.
Look at: the brown wall area behind the figure; the blue area left edge (lower layer)
Manganese-rich earth pigment. The brown wall uses umber as its primary pigment with small amounts of yellow ochre. Also the lower layer of the blue area at the left edge, over which natural ultramarine and lead white are applied.
Look at: the brown wall (small addition); the green areas at the upper and left edges
Iron oxide earth pigment. Added in small amounts to the umber in the brown wall. Also used in both green areas at the edges of the composition, mixed with azurite and small amounts of natural ultramarine.
Look at: the green area at the upper edge; the green area at the left edge
Basic copper carbonate. The primary pigment in both green areas at the edges, combined with yellow ochre and small amounts of natural ultramarine to produce the muted green tones.
Look at: the green areas at the edges (small addition); the blue area at the left edge (upper layer)
Lapis lazuli. Present in small amounts in the green areas alongside azurite and yellow ochre. In the blue area at the left edge, the upper layer contains natural ultramarine and lead white over the umber lower layer.
Look at: the blue area at the left edge (upper layer); the lighter flesh passages
Basic lead carbonate. Used in the upper layer of the blue area at the left edge combined with natural ultramarine. Also mixed into the lighter flesh passages.
Look at: the ground layer throughout the panel
Calcium carbonate. The ground of this panel is chalk, functioning as the primary ground material rather than a colorant.
Look at: the red hat first layer
Black pigment. Combined with vermilion in the first layer of the red hat to deepen the underlayer before the madder glaze.
Vermilion
Madder lake
Green earth
Umber
Yellow ochre
Azurite
Natural ultramarine
Lead white
Chalk
Black
Complete palette: all pigments across the four paintings
Every pigment identified in the source notes, which painting it appears in, and its role.
Lapis lazuli. Present in all four paintings. Vermeer's primary blue throughout, used even where cheaper alternatives were conventional.
Basic lead carbonate. The primary white across all four paintings, used in walls, underlayers, flesh, and mixed throughout colour passages.
Ground cobalt-blue glass. Used only in The Little Street as a grey-cool modifier in the white-grey sky passages.
Basic copper carbonate. Used for green shutters in The Little Street and green edge passages in Girl with the Red Hat, always mixed with other pigments.
Fused lead-tin oxide. Used for foliage greens in The Little Street and the yellow tunic of The Milkmaid.
Organic red lake from madder root. Used for red walls, red skirt, and as the final transparent glaze on the red hat.
Iron oxide earth pigment. Warm tone modifier in walls, floors, and sleeve underlayers across three paintings.
Mercuric sulfide. Used in lips, skin, and as the opaque underlayer of the red hat beneath the madder glaze.
Organic red lake from cochineal insects. Used in the lips and skin of Girl with a Pearl Earring alongside vermilion.
Manganese-rich earth pigment. Used in wall textures, shadow passages, and the brown wall of Girl with the Red Hat.
Iron oxide earth pigment. Used in sleeve layering in Girl with a Pearl Earring and in the green edge passages and brown wall of Girl with the Red Hat.
Earth pigment. Used in the lower layer of the yellow sleeve of Girl with a Pearl Earring.
Charred animal bone. Used in the dark background of Girl with a Pearl Earring and in the red hat underlayer of Girl with the Red Hat.
Fine carbon black. Used as undermodelling in The Milkmaid and in sleeve and background layers of Girl with a Pearl Earring.
Calcium carbonate. Ground material and filler present in ground layers, the turban edge, highlight passages, and the dark background of Girl with a Pearl Earring.
Organic blue dye. Used in the second layer of the dark background of Girl with a Pearl Earring alongside weld, chalk, and red ochre.
Yellow lake from weld plant containing luteolin. Used in the second layer of the dark background alongside indigo, chalk, and red ochre.
Complex iron silicate mineral. Used for the shadow passages of the face in Girl with the Red Hat.
Frequently asked questions
Why did Vermeer use natural ultramarine so consistently?
Natural ultramarine was the most expensive blue pigment available in seventeenth-century Delft, and most painters reserved it for prominent passages or used cheaper alternatives like azurite or smalt in less visible areas. Vermeer used natural ultramarine throughout his compositions regardless of prominence, a consistent choice across all four works examined here.
How did Vermeer achieve the crisp edge between the blue tunic and white wall in The Milkmaid?
The edge was built in three stages. First, a dark undermodelling layer was painted extending beyond the final boundary of the tunic. Over this, a white underlayer was applied. Finally, the blue paint was applied over the white. The bright, luminous quality of the edge comes from the underlying white paint showing through and around the blue, rather than from the blue being applied directly over a dark surface.
What makes the dark background of Girl with a Pearl Earring unusual?
Rather than a simple black or dark brown, the background has two layers. The first layer is bone black and charcoal black. The second layer contains weld (luteolin), chalk, a little red ochre, and indigo. The combination of an organic yellow lake and an organic blue in the second layer produces a complex warm dark tone that reads differently from a simple black ground.
Why was green earth used in the shadows of the face in Girl with the Red Hat?
Green earth has a long history of use in flesh shadow passages in European panel painting. Its cool grey-green tone contrasts with the warm flesh tones of the lit areas to create a sense of volume. Vermeer's use of it on this small panel reflects his awareness of earlier painting practice.
How did Vermeer build the yellow sleeve in Girl with a Pearl Earring?
The sleeve was constructed in two distinct layers with different particle sizes. The lower layer contains yellow ochre, brown ochre, red ochre, and finely ground charcoal black. The upper layer consists of lead white, finely ground yellow ochre, very little brown ochre, and finely ground natural ultramarine. The use of finely ground pigments in the upper layer and coarser particles below affects the surface texture and optical quality of the final paint.
Did Vermeer use a limited palette deliberately?
The evidence across these four works points to a consistent, deliberate restriction of materials. The Milkmaid in particular has been noted for its reduced palette organised around three primary colours. Across all four paintings the same small group of pigments recurs: natural ultramarine, lead white, madder lake, earth pigments, and black. The consistency suggests a principled approach to colour rather than constraints of availability or cost.
Sources: Delaney J.K., Dooley K.A., van Loon A. et al., Mapping the pigment distribution of Vermeer's Girl with a Pearl Earring, Heritage Science 8, 4 (2020). doi:10.1186/s40494-019-0348-9 · Costaras N., A Study of the Materials and Techniques of Johannes Vermeer, Studies in the History of Art Vol. 55, Symposium Papers XXXIII: Vermeer Studies (1998), pp. 144-167